Transnational Research Associates
Art Madsen, M.Ed.

Environmental Exam

1. The policy process includes the following components or stages, as described in our class syllabus. The following analysis sheds light on the nature and scope of each component.

  1. Agenda Setting – Beginning of the Environmental Decade: The major issues and problems affecting the environment must, of course, be identified. As industry expanded and greater population pressures were placed on limited biological and ecological resources, a number of urgent problems arose. At the beginning of the decade, residents of the United States began to become aware of such problems as:

    1. polluted estuaries, streams, lakes and rivers

    2. poor air-quality due to industrial growth

    3. depletion of vital resources such as oil, mineral deposits and timber

    4. demographic disorder, namely the unplanned growth of suburban areas.

As these and other problems continued to surge to the forefront of the public consciousness, they were defined, circumscribed and identified. Politicians began to recognize the importance of environmental policies for these specific issues and early legislation was contemplated but not immediately enacted at this stage.

b. Formulation – Vague Wording: The next stage in the policy process involves the loose wording or phrasing of concerns expressed by leading members of society. When air pollution, for example, becomes so bad that the people cannot breathe, or are contracting serious pulmonary diseases, then matters are put in writing. At this stage of the policy process, however, only vague concepts of future legislation are forthcoming. It will take other elements to achieve meaningful progress aimed at curtailing environmental and ecological hazards.

  1. Implementation – Early Implementation by Courts led to changes in process: As documents, loosely worded, began to filter up the chain of command in society, they were far more formally worded, especially by astute activists, conservationists and environmentally aware members of the community. Ultimately, in order to tangibly reduce pollution of an area’s environment, lawsuits and litigation reached the Courts and the Courts handed down judgements against industrial offenders. The Courts worked in tandem with State and Federal Legislatures to make sure that justice was forthcoming — both for the corporations and the conservationists. More sophisticated laws were developed, modified and re-enacted.

  2. Evaluation – Profound changes and business as usual: The original laws were modified as a function of industrial opposition, and then changed again in response to citizen outcries. The public, on the surface, felt secure that their environment was being protected. But the policy process is more complex than that. Even though legislation was enacted and enforced, the wealthy corporations found many loop-holes through which they could pass! Or they simply lobbied legislators to make the laws more acceptable to them. In fact, much pollution, waste, contamination and poor planning still occur in most geographic areas of this country. In this sense, it’s business as usual.

  1. Theoretical Models of Public Policy. Examples illustrating their functioning:

  1. Rationalism: An example of rationalism is legislation that was enacted to prevent overgrazing on the nation’s grasslands.

    1. The preferences of a vast majority of the citizenry were studied. It was found that most people wanted to preserve rangeland and grassland whenever possible. Ranchers, however, wanted to freely graze their cattle.

    2. The alternatives were studied very carefully. In keeping with the basic tenets of rationalism, the financial and economic considerations were analyzed. Benefit-cost analysis was run on the various ways in which grazing could continue and not destroy valuable grassland.

    3. The benefit-cost analysis (BCA) revealed certain conclusions allowing a balanced pattern of grazing to be implemented, with all parties pleased at the solution.

[Extra Information: Some of the variables considered in this overgrazing scenario were the following. (1) the costs of non-production of meat or milk, (2) the amount of rainfall affecting rate of biomass regrowth, (3) the costs of soil restoration over time, (4) the current market value of meat or milk and, of course, (5) agro-economic data relating to the bio-ecological grazing capacity of the land. By plugging these variables -- among others -- into the BCA equations, an approximation of the benefits to society, on the one hand, was made.

On the other hand, benefits to ranchers are measurably different. Without government subsidies being granted to ranchers, they have little or no incentive to refrain from abusing federal lands when drought or hardship conditions occur.]

These types of considerations were rationally applied to the rancher-conservationist equation and a policy was chosen that produced the greatest benefit, given the costs involved, which were acceptably low. Neither the conservationists nor the ranchers could interact independently, since legislation was the controlling factor in this rational model.
  1. Game Theory: Is predicated on Rationalism, but is more complex since it has many players all shifting in relation to each other.
    1. Due to multiple players, and loose rules, minimization of risk or loss is at the heart of this model, as is the maximization of benefit or gain. A case in point, within an environmental context, might be that of an Indian tribe in Arizona insisting on water rights for the Reservation.
    2. If the State builds a dam to restrict water flow, based on the needs of industry and agriculture elsewhere than on the Reservation, then the Indians lose their quest for water.
    3. As the parties negotiate, shift their positions on the actual construction, location or size of the dam (for example) the equation could shift, with the State, the Agricultural Interests, the Indians and other parties changing their positions as a function of their major concerns.
    4. Ultimate policy would be comprised of a combination of these interests (which could be shown on a simple matrix) possibly benefiting no one, or only one or two of the parties.
    5. A basis in rationalism is there, because decisions and sub-decisions are made reasonably and even scientifically, but (unlike pure rationalism controlled by an overriding external factor) there is a virtually constant shifting in the weighting of who may or may not benefit the most. The Indians could easily lose, as could the Agricultural Interests.
  1. Incrementalism: embodies the modification or variation of past environmental policy resulting in ever-evolving legislation. If the reasoning process is not properly executed when legislation or policy is first developed, then changes will be necessary.
    1. A viable example of this policy model is the 1985 Riparian-Wetland Initiative and the modified 1997 Riparian-Wetland Initiative. Obviously, in the twelve intervening years, there was a shift in a number of provisions under this policy legislation.
    2. There were changes in the way riverbanks were to be protected, in the ways that run-off was to be controlled and in provisions dealing with the types of pollutants that would or would not be permitted into lakes and streams.
    3. These changes occurred gradually – incrementally – as ecologists and riparian specialists became aware of the nature of certain toxic substances, or certain flow and saturation patterns.
  1. Elite Theory: involves the control exerted by influential members of society over the poorly educated, weak and ill-informed.
    1. One example of this might be the re-introduction of the Mexican Gray Wolf into Arizona and New Mexico by people like Ted Turner who is breeding them and supports their re-introduction from a large personal power base.
    2. It’s true that the ranchers who oppose re-introduction have some power, but the US Game & Wildlife Service, plus Ted Turner, far outstrip them in terms of elitist influence.
  1. Group Theory: incorporates the interaction of groups, with individuals constituting only components of each group. Compromises can sometimes be arranged. External rules (laws) are often imposed by government, thus controlling the range of decisions possible by groups.
    1. An example of macro-group policy establishing a mutually agreeable equilibrium might be The Audubon Society, The Sierra Club, and the Green Party coming to a consensus on whether crows and ravens can be shot legally as game-birds.
    2. This legislation has actually been achieved by group-consensus in states like Missouri where it is illegal to shoot ravens and crows.
    3. All people agree that these birds should not be shot: hunters, conservationists and the jurists. This agreement was reached by large groups, such as the Green Party, the Audubon Society and others getting together and formulating policy, later sanctioned by the US Game and Wildlife Service and other government agencies.
  1. Institutionalism: The influence and expertise of government institutions often result in formulation of policy acceptable to the public-at-large. There are expectations and spoken and/or unspoken rules that apply within such organizations and they influence policy, as well.
    1. A superficial example, for illustrative purposes, is the U.S. Forestry Service, a massive governmental organization, which independently imposed travel restrictions in the Santa Fe National Forest in the Cow Creek area due to fire or the risk of fire. During the week of May 29th; therefore, this area remained closed to the general public.
    2. This is a minor example of an institutionally imposed policy since no broad consensus was reached, no rational process was initiated, and no elitist policy was imposed. This policy was simply formulated, institutionally, by the US Forest Service
  1. The Iron Triangle concept can be applied to any organizational situation in which three mutually interactive components, controlling money and power, are present. However, it is usually a structure found in Government, and consists of three essential interdependent elements: An Interest Group or Lobby, a Member of Congress or a Congressional Committee, and a Government Agency or Bureau.

  1. There is a tremendous amount of power and control exerted within an Iron Triangle. Policy, legislation, industrial profit and money are at stake. On the one hand, the Congressman receives benefits from the Interest Group to which he is tied. The Agencies to which the Congressman allocates money assist in the drafting of legislation favorable to the Interest Group. The Interest Group benefits from the Agency’s influence and the Interest Group, completing the triangle, continues to provide financial ‘incentives’ to the Member of Congress.

  2. This system virtually amounts to bribery and constitutes, in the eyes of many observers, clear-cut ethical misconduct. Essentially, as can be seen, money is being funneled to Members of Congress to create and support Agencies that in turn protect and shelter the interests of industrial and corporate entities, through perhaps proposing inappropriate legislation. In all fairness, the same could be said of Environmental Interest Groups who benefit in this triangular pattern from Agencies and Members of Congress, as well.

  3. An example of an Iron Triangle relationship in the environmental sector is the Clean Air Act of 1970, and Amendments in 1977 and 1990. This was one of the most complex pieces of legislation ever enacted. The Iron Triangle involved the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) which was required to set air-quality standards, Senator Ed Muskie of Maine, and Environmental Interest Groups such as the Earth Day Committee, the Montreal Protocol Committee, and many others.

    4. [http://www.cleanairtrust.org/nepa2cercla.html]

  4. Senator Muskie, and his committee colleagues, were responsible for promoting and drafting some of the legislation required, prompted to do so by the Environmental Groups who granted him certain publicity and perhaps financial incentives. In turn, he helped fund, through the Federal Budget, the EPA’s on-going initiatives and kept major industry under control insofar as possible. Under the Reagan Administration, problems arose and industrial groups became part of the Iron Triangle, and more successfully lobbied Congress than did the Environmental Groups. The Amendments to the Clean Air Act were delayed during the Reagan Administration because of a change in the Triangle.

  5. With respect to the Clean Air Act, the Iron Triangle shifted in mid-stream, but was still very much an operative concept both during the earlier Muskie era and during the Reagan years.

  1. There is a well-known mathematical conceptual design, referred to as MINIMAX, that can be applied to environmental issues, as well as to many other problems, both in the United States and abroad. First, the primary principle or objective of MINIMAX is to minimize (financial) loss and to maximize (financial) gain. The model can be used beyond the limits of the financial realm, of course, and can be adapted to minimize disadvantages and to maximize advantages, for example, in a non-numerical sense.

Amazingly, the design of MINIMAX takes into account the full range of actions and options open to other players in the equation; and even in complex situations will still work, if properly applied.

  1. The MINIMAX model is related to game theory because it accounts for variables among game participants. By properly predicting the rational, and irrational, moves of opposing players, rewards or payoffs can be achieved in the form of profit or leverage. The various permutations can be graphed on a matrix and certain moves can be "ruled in" or "ruled out".

    2. Insert Photo of Gila Trout

  2. In New Mexico, the Gila Trout is currently endangered. Efforts at the Mescalero Fish Hatchery to preserve it are underway. One of the game players, therefore, is the Hatchery. Another game player is the Mescalero Apache Tribe that has historically fished this species nearly to extinction.

Complicating the issue, the US Fish and Wildlife Service (USFW) has taken an interest in preserving the Gila Trout. According to the hatchery, money is not plentiful enough to continue the program to save this fish, thus getting the New Mexico Biological Services State Office in Albuquerque into the picture since they are in a position to solicit funds.

c) Game Theory and MINIMAX could be applied to this domestic environmental and conservation issue since it is the job of each player to out-guess the other, and to maximize their respective gains, while minimizing their losses. The hungry Apache tribe certainly has one agenda, while the USWF, the Hatchery and the Biological Services Office have quite another. Interestingly, the Hatchery’s interests and priorities may not be those necessarily of the Biological Services Office, or of the USWF either! So the plot thickens and the combination-matrix comes into play. The mathematical probabilities of MINIMAX are useful, and can assist in locating a formula whereby all or most of the players may gain something, while (hopefully) preserving the Gila Trout.

  1. The four principal steps used in the cost benefit analysis model (CBA) according to John L. Moore, Chief of the Environment and Natural Resources Policy Division of the National Council for Science and the Environment (NCSE), are:

  1. The CBA process applied to energy alternatives decisions: Assuming that the cost of petroleum products continues to rise due to political or logistical problems overseas and stagnating or insufficient production at home, the government, acting in conjunction with the private sector, may wish to find alternative energy sources. When deciding which alternative energy sources are the most cost-effective, a CBA should be conducted.

  2. Each alternative energy source needs to be examined in accordance with the model. Some of the alternative sources that should be examined are:

  1. Let us examine ways in which the CBA model can be applied to Wind (Eolian) Energy, for example.

6. The ‘conventional model’ of program implementation is sometimes also called the classical model.

  1. It involves identifying specific goals that have clearly defined and quantifiable objectives. This model incorporates a program monitoring system as well. There is a definite commitment from the concerned Agency to achieve the designated goal or goals. Additionally, there is a legislative commitment, at county, state or federal level, that often authorizes use of resources to the extent required.

  2. There are adverse consequences that arise if the model is not adhered to in all or most of its aspects. They could include program failure or inappropriate allocation of funds and resources.

  3. There are many players in the conventional implementation model. They include the bureaucratic apparatus, various interest groups, a legislative authority such as Congress or a State Legislature, and under some conditions private sector firms or entities.

  4. The Courts also play a role in adjudicating (deciding) matters concerning program implementation, and sometimes they lack the technical knowledge necessary to do so properly.

  5. When implementing programs using the classic/conventional model, many things can go wrong.

    1. The interest groups can unfairly exert more pressure than they should.

    2. Or Congress may delay legislation due to Agency inefficiency in preparing data.

    3. Or the government bureaucracy could impose lengthy regulations and procedures that are not beneficial to the Program’s goals or objectives.

    4. The private sector, if it is involved, can have a separate agenda, operating at counter-purposes to the proposed program.

7. Two public policy values mentioned in class that were of special interest to me are:

Efficiency and Equity. The first value falls under the category of economic-based values, whereas the second is a value that is important to the nation’s citizens.

    1. Efficiency: This concept is related to worker input and output. It can be applied to white collar workers as easily as to production-line workers, or even to abstract professional jobs such as researchers and scientists. There is a relationship between the reward that a worker earns and his or her productivity. The size of the reward (salary, perks, prestige) depends on the efficiency with which the worker performs. This concept does not relate necessarily to the impact that a worker’s performance may have or to the design of the policy or procedure, but only to performance of a given task, in terms of initial input (of, for example, raw materials or data) and processed output. A time element is involved, as well, of course.

    1. An example of efficiency, in the conservation sense, would be in the use of water to irrigate a field. If the farmer properly plans his irrigation patterns and systems, his crops will absorb a high percentage of water applied to the field, and waste a low percentage

    2. Normal irrigation efficiency is about 80%, but it can be improved with careful planning and better application methods. The rewards for a water-efficient farmer are lower costs and higher yield. A policy for proper and efficient irrigation methods, especially in the American Southwest where water is scarce, could be devised, imposing the most efficient irrigation methods known. Such a policy could be formally stated and made into law by the State Legislature.

    1. Equity: This value is far more personal in nature than economic-based values such as efficiency or effectiveness. It involves the fair treatment of all individuals by giving them equal opportunity both in reality and under the law. The entire public good is served by including all of society’s members in the activities of that society.

    1. The Australian Equal Opportunity Act of 1995, for example, has as one of its primary objectives to " promote recognition and acceptance of everyone's right to equality of opportunity." There are a number of provisions in this Act ensuring equity and equitable treatment of all Australians, permanent residents, and foreigners. http://www.dms.dpc.vic.gov.au/l2d/E/ACT00904/3_0.html

    2. Equity is a concept that has been enacted into Policy in most western democracies; however, much improvement needs to be made in some countries when implementing this policy fairly. For example, in Australia, aborigines are not always treated equitably by society or the law. In the United States, even 40 years after the Civil Rights Movement, there are still inequalities in hiring, in equal opportunity, and in schooling.

 

7a. Three Environmental Values that appealed to me during our class discussion are:

Environmentalism, Values Attributed to Nature, and Environmental Justice.

    1. Environmentalism: The sectors of society that are interested in conservation and preservation of resources frequently use this expansive term. It represents a broad range of interests within the ecologically conscious segments of society. It relates to the interaction of all persons within an environmental context and it is generally construed in a favorable light.

    1. An example of implementing ‘environmentalism’ as policy would be a local Town Council, in the name of preserving the environment and the rights of individuals, enacting fishing and sailing regulations to be obeyed within the Town Limits.

    2. Such a case was described in the Ocean and Coastal Law Journal published by the School of Law at the University of Maine (Vol 2, No. 1, 1996). An article, entitled "LCM Enterprises v. Town of Dartmouth: Can Recreational Mariners Protect Their Right to Navigate?" by William K. Terrill, describes just such an environmental battle, dealing with fishing and sailing rights, but also greater environmental issues.

    1. Values Attributed to Nature: There are a number of sub-categories under this heading. Man's needs encompass religious, aesthetic, recreational and therapeutic requirements, all of which must be accounted for in enacting environmental policy. When environmental policy is finalized and passed into law, both nature and man must be considered. Beauty must be maintained; needs must be fulfilled; balance must be achieved.

    1. An example of a "value attributable to nature" would be a new recreational park being constructed on the outskirts of a suburban area. The park would have to minimize damage to the eco-system and yet fulfill man’s need for aesthetic and recreational opportunities.

    2. At West Branch State Park in Ravenna, Ohio new restrooms, gasoline facilities for boats, new docks and an enlarged break-wall have been added. These features will make fishing more enjoyable for sportsmen. However, care had to be taken not to disrupt basic ecological systems or any aspect of nature. A careful balance was maintained in developing this park for human needs. http://www.dnr.state.oh.us/odnr/parks/

    1. Environmental Justice is a fairly new value because it has only been within the last two or three decades that Environmental Policy has become socially, even legally, sensitive and subject to litigation or extended court and legislative battles at all levels of the socio-juridical system. It represents the merging of social justice, as a generic concept, and environmentalism, also a broad notion. There are definitely governmental actions which fall under the value heading of ‘environmental justice’, precisely because there must be a mediator when controversy arises, usually between environmentalists and vested interests.

    1. An example of an Environmental Justice issue related to public policy would be the Center for Community Action and Environmental Justice (CCAEJ) fighting battles through government agencies and the courts against major violators of Environmental Policy Law.

    2. One of these battles, publicized by the CCAEJ, involved the Monsanto Chemical Company. In 1996, the New York State Attorney General won an injunction against a pesticide manufacturer, Monsanto, for falsely claiming that its pesticide is as safe as table salt. http://www.ccaej.org/

8. Policy Making Group power is derived from a number of identifiable indicators.

It is also related to Group Theory that governs the interaction of individuals, if they are members of the group, and groups themselves.

There are several discernable elements of policy-making group power. They can be itemized in terms of the following indicators: [derived from class lecture notes]

Policy Making Groups vary in strength as a function of the above factors or indicators. It is sometimes fairly easy to see how powerful a group is by analyzing the internal dynamics of their organization, using these indicators as ways of judging their potential influence.

  1. The five types of symbolic representation discussed in class are as follows:

Each of these has a corresponding example similar to those discussed during the lecture.

a) Modification: One example of change, in this case gradual, would be the Safe Drinking Water Act of 1974. It was later amended, changed, modified (in 1986), because of new EPA findings in 1977, and by other agencies in the 1980s, to include new, and vital provisions. These changes came about through executive and consultative decisions.

b) Evaluation: The Superfund package of 1980 was highly complex and caused a number of political and environmental arguments. Its various phases and segments had to be carefully evaluated, assessed, and then re-assessed. This process was not efficiently performed and caused tremendous dissension, costing millions of dollars. Evaluation methodology, in this case, was not properly streamlined or implemented.

c) Formulation: It is well known that foreign policy decisions are often made in cloakrooms and closed committee sessions. So, Joint Chiefs of Staff meetings during, for example, the Iraqi Desert Storm confrontation consisted of ‘policy formulation’ in the true sense of the term. In reality, major policy decisions were probably a combination of both formal (war room) and informal (cloakroom) discussions among the British, the French, the US Joint Chiefs and Bush Administration officials, as the operation progressed.

    1. Implementation: The Rosenbaum example of policy implementation problems is particularly insightful. (76). He talks of President Reagan’s order to federal agencies to prepare RIA (impact analysis) guidelines for regulatory proposals. The OMB did it one way and the EPA did it another. This represents one of the major risks in the policy or procedure implementation stage.

    2. Agenda Setting: In Las Cruces, the Extra-Territorial Zoning commission, known also as the ETZ, must make periodic decisions about certain public events occurring on the edge of town, as well as about structures, businesses and other construction activities proposed by residents living in outlying suburban areas of LC. In the case of the Fair Acres Corn Maze, for example, the Zoning Commission had to decide how important such an event was to the community, and whether the impact of traffic and other factors would be too great to allow a permit for it. Under this scenario, members each had an agenda to bring to the table. Politics, anticipated problems, and preexisting policies were all factors in determining whether the Permit was to be issued. (It was issued -- at least for the current year.)

  1. Three of Rosenbaum’s four limits on science: Walter Rosenbaum, a recognized public administration authority, has written eloquently about new developments in science that have enabled planners to improve environmental policy and legislation. However, in Environmental Politics and Policy (1998), he places some limitations on using science to eliminate or solve environmental dilemmas. Here are three of his four main points:

    1. We must be cautious since the mass media have magnified the impact of scientific research on policy-making in the environmental sector. For example: To read the press, not only is the tip of Tierra del Fuego in South America affected by ozone depletion, but this creeping phenomenon will soon engulf us all! In reality, it will take generations to place large segments of the human population at risk, and we have time to correct this (admittedly serious) problem in the interim. (Rosenbaum, 17)

    2. Science can "confound" the ultimate resolution of a problem by providing multiple options, many of which are conflicting. Minimizing shrinkage of the Earth’s remaining tropical rain forest zones, for example, is a complex issue that has many ‘scientific solutions’, such as (among many others) refraining from timber exploitation, reallocation of agricultural land and restriction of industrial expansion. Which solution is the best is open to question, and determining scientific priorities is difficult since professional opinions differ. (Rosenbaum, 17)

    3. Since science has reached such a high level of precision, we can never pursue a zero-risk level of protection. There will always be some form or risk present in our environment. The advancement of science, in this sense, is disadvantageous since we are now aware of situations over which we may not easily have control, even though the risk may be minimal. This may be the case of microbial contamination of processed food, for example. (Rosenbaum, 16-17).

  1. Rosenbaum’s description of the "command and control" approach to enforcing environmental legislation is based on using the force of law to achieve goals and objectives. This is basically ordering corporations and industries to comply, without offering them a reward or an incentive to do so. As pointed out in the essay question, the Clean Air Act of 1990 provides ‘pollution credits’ for firms that comply with its provisions, thus offering a means of urging them more enthusiastically toward compliance. However, there are also enforcement powers in the 1990 Clean Air Act that reflect a ‘policing’ type mentality. In spite of its mixed approach, this Act allows businesses to make choices and exercise options in a flexible market-based manner. (http://www.epa.gov/oar/oaqps/peg_caa/pegcaa02.html - topic2g)

    1. There are also Toxic Chemical and Substance Laws that fall under the authorization of the EPA. One of these laws, the Asbestos Hazard Emergency Response Act (Rosenbaum, 27) provides clauses for encouraging compliance, rather than simply setting deadlines and enforcing provisions. Its overall structure reflects an ideology and a purpose that are difficult to resist, since schoolchildren’s safety is at stake.

    2. One of the most challenging aspects of enacting and implementing environmental legislation deals with attempting to gain compliance without twisting arms, undercutting industrial profit and imposing unrealistic expectations. On the other hand, environmental lobbies and activist citizen groups are entitled to protect the air they breathe, the water they drink and the eco-system generally from sources of pollution. A system of incentives (monetary, option-based, or compensatory) built into the legislation is important for encouraging industrial executives to comply with these sometimes strict requirements.

  1. There is no doubt at all that Al Gore is totally convinced that economic models and financial solutions are inadequate to deal with the environmental crisis facing the United States and the world. In his chapters entitled "Eco-nomics: Truth or Consequences" and "Environmentalism of the Spirit", Gore makes a strong case for detaching standard economic theory from our all-important quest to improve the environment (Earth in the Balance, 1992).

  1. He feels that the environment transcends the economic system and must be placed significantly above the level of econometrics and economic analysis. Although he concedes that classic economic theory and capitalism are certainly worthy concepts for building America’s strength, he quotes Herman Daly as saying, "There is no point of contact between macroeconomics and the environment." (1992, 183)

  2. He is angry that industrialists can quantify their profits and losses, without environmentally conscious citizens being able to quantify the loss of Iowan topsoil washing down the Mississippi River (1992, 184). Throughout his book, Gore builds a credible case for placing the environment way above the economic theories and paradigms of the day.

  3. Nonetheless, Al Gore is a pragmatist. He realizes that an ideological position (loving the environment) must also be eventually reduced to specific laws and regulations. Indeed, as the author and architect of "Re-Inventing Government", he believes in streamlining, but maintaining government control over vital issues. He pointed this out in his Third Debate with George Bush, and also strongly asserted that "I want to protect the environment". There is no doubt that Gore’s position on the environment is as strong as it was eight years ago at the time of his book’s publication. He still places environmental issues at or near the top of his agenda.

In the final chapters of Earth in the Balance, Gore focuses on what he calls " A Global Marshall Plan" in which he outlines, in detailed form, how he would impose fees on industry for destruction of virgin materials, how he would establish Environmental Trust Funds and how he would use the trappings of economics to serve, and save, the environment. In this sense, Gore seems to have moved somewhat away from his lofty and altruistic stance of earlier years, and, without abandoning those values, begins to apply some of the principles of economics to ensure that major industries do not destroy what still remains of our planet’s precious resources. In this sense, Gore would be willing to use economic analysis to further the cause of environmentalism.