BEOWULF

Building on the style and content of Old Norse Sagas and Icelandic Eddas, the unidentified poet who composed the legend of Beowulf's noble death and adventures, and whose writings have precariously survived the centuries on only one fire-scorched manuscript, focused his attention, and did so eloquently, on the dominant values, bonds and ties of Sixth and Seventh Century Scandinavian society.

The warfare, battles and attacks featured throughout this poem, which cannot be truly classified an "epic" in the Homeric sense, nor really an "allegory", reveal a life built on courage, valor, bravery and honor, but also on fealty, love, and respect.

Further, Seventh Century Nordic Society seems to have revolved around an admixture of superstition, Old Testamentary Law vaguely reflected in the exploits of Hrothgar and Beowulf, and vengeance.

Beowulf, son of Scyld, the tribal leader of the Geats perishes three-fourths of the way through this saga, but not before the rise and exploits of the Danes, and of his tribe, are explored in detail.

The invention of primeval enemies, such as the Dragon Grendel, is central to providing a backdrop for a dazzling array of battles and confrontations. The acquisition of wealth (gold, jewels and tribute) is also a contrived "causa belli" and highlights the motives, heroic exploits and adventures of these early Scandinavian Tribes which either disappeared mysteriously into the mists of history, or ultimately migrated to Scotland and England.

Interlinked with this ethic of violence and glory are the bonds which Beowulf's and Hrothgar's followers consider most highly cherished. These ties are specifically those of "king and subject", "tribe and members", as well as "parents and children."

The loyalty and love which these people display are authentic and timeless values which represent the closest of bonds and remain strong during time of war, tragedy and danger. Emotions are powerfully rendered, including hatred of enemy peoples and monsters, portrayed realistically in third-person narrative style, as in Chapter 10, "The Fight with Grendel."

Terminology used throughout the poem is largely militant and war-like. Such phrases as "breast-plate", "armor", and "fighting-men", among others, are used liberally. A mood of ominous expectation is thus built, bringing into focus the qualities, bonds, and ties typifying the entirety of Beowulf.

The heroism, tribal loyalty and high emotion of this serious, tragic, but spell-binding story, create the fabric of the classic Anglo-Saxon work that this oldest of English-language legends has become.

Symbolizing honor and strength, control of the "wine-hall" passes into the hands of the victor, under the traditional laws of the Danes and Geats. As Beowulf triumphs over the fiend, Grendel, he casts off the shame and dishonor which would have befallen him, and full control of the wine-hall, as well as territorial supremacy, are clearly his. Only later in the poem does Beowulf begin to lose the primacy that had been exclusively his domain. Even in death, however, Beowulf is immortalized by the members of his tribe, and by the writer, as he passed into glorious history His funeral pyre, and monument on the coast, bore witness to his greatness.

It seems that the avoidance of shame and dishonor in one's youth establishes a life-long pattern in Geat Society, whether minor failures are registered later in life or not. Once a great warrior, Beowulf remains one. His people thrive on his noble character and triumphs; his opponents tremble at his name, in awe and respect.

Further, inter-tribal generosity and openness, for example, during scenes of thankfuness for the victory over Grendel, are also qualities which shine forth throughout this saga, further advancing the premise that this Geat warrior-king and his people embody all of the characteristics thought noble and high-minded in the eyes of his tribesmen.

The obvious premium placed on the "honor of victory", and the "shame of defeat" is demonstrated again and again in violent confrontations which punctuate this dramatic tale. The narrator seems to persist in focusing on the same acts of valor, varying the descriptions only slightly, as one passage melts into the next. On many occasions, women surround the victor; wine, treasure or tribute are exchanged and valiant acts are praised in song and dance.

Nonetheless, destruction of one's reputation is possible, as well, as the poet points out in the tragic episode dealing with Haetheyn who inadvertently killed his own kinsman. Shame is thus brought upon the offending brother.

Indeed, contrast between the sorrow of death on the field of battle, and the merriment of victory lends a touch of reality to the poem which would otherwise be jewel-encrusted and far too gilded.

It can be said that a credible balance between these mutually exclusive values of honor and dishonor, or pride and shame, is achieved, lending a quality of greatness to this famous Old English Poem.

The crucifixion of Christ has proven to be a theme which has inspired poets and authors from the earliest times. Many Christian writings, of course, do not claim to be divinely inspired and are not considered part of Sacred Scripture. Obviously, the "Dream of the Rood" falls into this category.

In view of the unorthodox, even militant, portrayal of Christ, the "talking" Cross, and the overlay of rich, pre-medieval imagery, this poem is distinguished by qualities which clearly make it unique in Early English Verse.

The dream progresses from a gold-coated, bejeweled tree toward an image of the Blood of Christ drenching its limbs and branches. The tree proceeds to tell its own history which involved the making of the Cross, the Crucifixion and the suffering of Christ. Heavily Germanic, somewhat distorted, descriptions imbue the tone of the tragic events recounted. An emphasis on "iron points", on "blood", on the "warrior" image of Christ and on mocking jeers from Christ's tormentors, all reflect the apparent character of Germanic peoples.

Yet, the far more positive tone, reflecting a distinct "Salvation Theme" and the promise of Heaven, joyous Angels and Saints could also be construed as foreshadowing a certain Germanic tendency, centuries later, to embrace the concept of belief in Christ's Redemptive Death, a death providing the gate to Eternal Bliss or, more plainly, the path to Heaven.

The themes of good and evil are also explored, with the hope of good triumphing over suffering and malevolence. Only belief, however, in Christ and in His honored mother, Mary, can achieve this objective, in the eyes of the writer whose insistence on the power of belief and faith is noteworthy in the final third of this poem.

Many indications of this narrative's having been originally read or sung to listeners also reinforce the sense of intimacy and urgency of this descriptively militant, but devoutly Christian work which turns from Germanic emphasis on warlike qualities and vivid imagery to far more theological themes, as the Dream of the Rood moves toward its distinctly spiritual conclusion.

In reality, the Old English poem entitled alternately Andreas is quite lengthy. It was drawn, in a thematic sense, from Second Century apocryphal writings, and transcribed, with poetic adornment, by the poet to reflect the acts and exploits of Saint Andrew during, in particular, his travels to primitive lands, such as Mormedonia.

In the opening lines of Andreas, the apostles are mentioned in terms which might not be reflective of their images in current-day Christianity. In fact, the twelve modest fishermen are referred to as "heroes", as "Thanes of God" and as having emerged from battles and wars, decorated and bold. This type of terminology seems strange by modern standards, since current portrayal of the Apostles is far more serene, reserved and reverent.

There is a curious reference to the "weaving of webs", adding a sense of uncertainty, complexity or intrigue to the tone. Yet, some of the Apostles' well known characteristics also emerge, such as their desire to disseminate the Gospel. These men travel, explore and spread the Word of God far more courageously and brashly than the "Apostles" of the 20th Century might seem, in the eyes of contemporary Christians, to do in modern translations of The Bible.

There is, in the class-provided excerpt, a distinct linkage of pre-Medieval values (well-wrought rings, gold, treasure) with Divine images, which strays from conventional spiritual writing and narration.

The vibrant richness of descriptive passages, as the poet concentrates on the works of the Apostles and of Andrew specifically, is an aspect of this Legend which will remain in the reader's mind for quite some time.